ESET Research Whitepapers  //  January 2018 // Author: Filip Kafka ESET’S GUIDE TO DEOBFUSCATING AND DEVIRTUALIZING FINFISHER ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher2 CONTENTS Introduction 3 Anti-disassembly 4 FinFisher’s virtual machine 7 Terms and definitions 8 Vm_start 8 FinFisher’s interpreter 10 1. Creating an IDA graph 10 2. Vm_dispatcher 11 3. Vm_context 12 4. �Virtual instruction implementations – vm_handlers 14 5. Writing your own disassembler 17 6. �Understanding the implementation of this virtual machine 19 7. �Automating the disassembly process for more FinFisher samples 20 8. �Compiling disassembled code without the VM 20 Conclusion 22 Appendix A: IDA Python script for naming FinFisher vm_handlers 23 ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher3 Thanks to its strong anti-analysis measures, the FinFisher spyware has gone largely unexplored. Despite being a prominent surveillance tool, only partial analyses have been published on its more recent samples. Things were put in motion in the summer of 2017 with ESET’s analysis of FinFisher surveillance campaigns that ESET had discovered in several countries. In the course of our research, we have identified campaigns where internet service providers most probably played the key role in compromising the victims with FinFisher. When we started thoroughly analyzing this malware, the main part of our effort was overcoming FinFisher’s anti-analysis measures in its Windows versions. The combination of advanced obfuscation techniques and proprietary virtualization makes FinFisher very hard to de-cloak. To share what we learnt in de-cloaking this malware, we have created this guide to help others take a peek inside FinFisher and analyze it. Apart from offering practical insight into analyzing FinFisher’s virtual machine, the guide can also help readers to understand virtual machine protection in general – that is, proprietary virtual machines found inside a binary and used for software protection. We will not be discussing virtual machines used in interpreted programming languages to provide compatibility across various platforms, such as the Java VM. We have also analyzed Android versions of FinFisher, whose protection mechanism is based on an open source LLVM obfuscator. It is not as sophisticated or interesting as the protection mechanism used in the Windows versions, thus we will not be discussing it in this guide. Hopefully, experts from security researchers to malware analysts will make use of this guide to better understand FinFisher’s tools and tactics, and to protect their customers against this omnipotent security and privacy threat. INTRODUCTION https://www.welivesecurity.com/2017/09/21/new-finfisher-surveillance-campaigns/ https://www.welivesecurity.com/2017/09/21/new-finfisher-surveillance-campaigns/ ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher4 ANTI- DISASSEMBLY When we open a FinFisher sample in IDA Pro, the first protection we notice in the main function is a simple, yet very effective, anti- disassembly trick. FinFisher uses a common anti-disassembly technique – hiding the execution flow by replacing one unconditional jump with two complementary, conditional jumps. These conditional jumps both target the same location, so regardless of which jump is made, the same effective code execution flow results. The conditional jumps are then followed by garbage bytes. These are meant to misdirect the disassembler, which normally will not recognize that they are dead code, and will steam on, disassembling garbage code. What makes this malware special is the way in which it uses this technique. In most other malware we’ve analyzed, it is only used a few times. FinFisher, however, uses this trick after every single instruction. This protection is very effective at fooling the disassembler – many parts of the code aren’t disassembled properly. And of course, it is impossible to use the graph mode in IDA Pro. Our first task will be to get rid of this anti- disassembly protection. The code was clearly not obfuscated manually but with an automated tool and we can observe a pattern in all the jump pairs. There are two different types of jump pairs – near jump with a 32-bit offset and short jump with an 8-bit offset. The opcodes of both conditional near jumps (with a dword as a jump offset) start with a 0x0F byte; while the second bytes are equal to 0x8?, where ? in both jump instructions differs only by 1 bit. This is because x86 opcodes for complementary jumps are numerically consecutive. For example, this obfuscation scheme always pairs JE with JNE (0x0F 0x84 vs 0x0F 0x85 opcodes), JP with JNP (0x0F 0x8A vs 0x0F 0x8B opcodes), and so on. These opcodes are then followed by a 32- bit argument specifying the offset to the destination of the jump. Since the size of both instructions is 6 bytes, the offsets in two consequent jumps differ exactly by 6. (Figure 1) Figure 1 // �Screenshot showing instructions followed by two conditional near jumps every time ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher5 For example, the code below can be used to detect two of these consecutive conditional jumps: def is_jump_near_pair(addr): jcc1 = Byte(addr+1) jcc2 = Byte(addr+7) # do they start like near conditional jumps? if Byte(addr) != 0x0F || Byte(addr+6) != 0x0F: return False # are there really 2 consequent near conditional jumps? if (jcc1 & 0xF0 != 0x80) || (jcc2 & 0xF0 != 0x80): return False # are the conditional jumps complementary? if abs(jcc1-jcc2) != 1: return False # do those 2 conditional jumps point to the same destination? dst1 = Dword(addr+2) dst2 = Dword(addr+8) if dst1-dst2 != 6: return False return True Deobfuscation of short jumps is based on the same idea, only the constants are different. The opcode of a short conditional jump equals 0x7?, and is followed by one byte – the jump offset. So again, when we want to detect two consecutive, conditional near jumps, we have to look for opcodes: 0x7?; offset; 0x7? ± 1; offset -2. The first opcode is followed by one byte, which differs by 2 in two consequent jumps (which is, again, the size of both instructions). (Figure 2) For example, this code can be used to detect two conditional short jumps: After detecting one of these conditional jump pairs, we deobfuscate this code by patching the first conditional jump to unconditional (using the 0xE9 opcode for the near jump pairs and 0xEB for the short jump pairs) and patch the rest of the bytes with NOP instructions (0x90) In addition to these two cases, there might be some places where a jump pair consists of a short and a near jump, rather than two jumps of the same category. However, this only occurs in a few cases in the FinFisher samples and can be fixed manually. With these patches made, IDA Pro starts to “understand” the new code and is ready (or at least almost ready) to create a graph. It may be the case that we still need to make one more improvement: append tails, i.e. assign the node with the destination of the jump to the same def is_jcc8(b): return b&0xF0 == 0x70 def is_jump_short_pair(addr): jcc1 = Byte(addr) jcc2 = Byte(addr+2) if not is_jcc8(jcc1) || not is_jcc8(jcc2): return False if abs(jcc2–jcc1) != 1: return False dst1 = Byte(addr+1) dst2 = Byte(addr+3) if dst1 – dst2 != 2: return False return True def patch_jcc32(addr): PatchByte(addr, 0x90) PatchByte(addr+1, 0xE9) PatchWord(addr+6, 0x9090) PatchDword(addr+8, 0x90909090) def patch_jcc8(addr): PatchByte(addr, 0xEB) PatchWord(addr+2, 0x9090) ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher6 graph where the node with the jump instruction is located. For this, we can use the IDA Python function append_‌func_‌tail. The last step of overcoming the anti-disassembly tricks consists of fixing function definitions. It may still occur that the instruction after the jumps is push ebp, in which case IDA Pro (incorrectly) treats this as the beginning of a function and creates a new function definition. In that case, we have to remove the function definition, create the correct one and append tails again. This is how we can get rid of FinFisher’s first layer of protection – anti-disassembly. Figure 2 // Examples of instructions followed by two conditional short jumps every time ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher7 F INFISHER’S VIRTUAL MACHINE After a successful deobfuscation of the first layer, we can see a clearer main function whose sole purpose is to launch a custom virtual machine and let it interpret the bytecode with the actual payload. As opposed to a regular executable, an executable with a virtual machine inside uses a set of virtualized instructions, rather than directly using the instructions of the processor. Virtualized instructions are executed by a virtual processor, which has its own structure and does not translate the bytecode into a native machine code. This virtual processor as well as the bytecode (and virtual instructions) are defined by the programmer of the virtual machine. (Figure 3) As mentioned in the introduction, a well-known example of a virtual machine is the Java Virtual Machine. But in this case, the virtual machine is inside the binary, so we are dealing with a virtual machine used for a protection against reverse engineering. There are well-known commercial virtual machine protectors, for example VMProtect or Code Virtualizer. The FinFisher spyware was compiled from source code and the compiled binary was then protected with a virtual machine at the Figure 3 // Bytecode interpreted by the virtual CPU assembly level. The protection process includes translating instructions of the original binary into virtual instructions and then creating a new binary that contains the bytecode and the virtual CPU. Native instructions from the original binary are lost. The protected, virtualized sample must have the same behavior as a non- protected sample. To analyze a binary protected with a virtual machine, one needs to: 1. Analyze the virtual CPU. 2. Write one’s own disassembler for this custom virtual CPU and parse the bytecode. 3. Optional step: compile the disassembled code into a binary file to get rid of the virtual machine. The first two tasks are very time-consuming, and the first one can also get quite difficult. It includes analyzing every vm_‌handler and understanding how registers, memory access, calls, etc. are translated. ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher8 Terms and def initions There is no standard for naming particular parts of a virtual machine. Hence, we will define some terms which will be referenced throughout the whole paper. • Virtual machine (vm) – custom, virtual CPU; contains parts like the vm_‌dispatcher, vm_‌start, vm_‌handlers • vm_‌start – the initialization part; memory allocation and decryption routines are executed here • Bytecode (also known as pcode) – virtual opcodes of vm_‌instructions with their arguments are stored here • vm_‌dispatcher – fetches and decodes virtual opcode; is basically a preparation for the execution of one of the vm_‌handlers • vm_‌handler – an implementation of a vm_‌instruction; executing one vm_‌handler means executing one vm_‌instruction • Interpreter (also known as vm_‌loop) – vm_‌dispatcher + vm_‌handlers – the virtual CPU • Virtual opcode – an analog of the native opcode • vm_‌context (vm_‌structure) – an internal structure used by the interpreter • vi_‌params – a structure in the vm_‌context structure; the virtual instruction parameters, used by the vm_‌handler; it includes the vm_‌opcode and arguments When interpreting the bytecode, the virtual machine uses a virtual stack and a single virtual register. • vm_‌stack – an analog of a native stack, which is used by the virtual machine • vm_‌register – an analog of a native register, used by this virtual machine; further referenced as tmp_‌REG • vm_‌instruction – an instruction defined by developers of vm; the body (the implementation) of the instruction is called its vm_‌handler In the following sections, we will describe the parts of the virtual machine in more technical detail and explain how to analyze them. A deobfuscated graph of the main malware function consists of three parts – an initialization part and two other parts which we have named vm_‌start and interpreter (vm_‌dispatcher + vm_‌handlers). The initialization part specifies a unique identifier of what could be interpreted as a bytecode entry point, and pushes it on the stack. Then, it jumps to the vm_‌start part that is an initialization routine for the virtual machine itself. It decrypts the bytecode and passes control to the vm_‌dispatcher that loops over the virtual instructions of the bytecode and interprets them using the vm_‌handlers . The vm_‌dispatcher starts with a pusha instruction and ends with a jmp dword ptr [eax+ecx*4] instruction (or similar), which is a jump to the relevant vm_‌handler . Vm_‌start The graph created after the deobfuscation of the first layer is seen in Figure 4. The vm_‌start part is not so important for the analysis of the interpreter. However, it can help us understand the whole implementation of the vm; how it uses and handles virtual flags, virtual stack, etc. The second part – the vm_‌dispatcher with vm_‌handlers – is the crucial one. The vm_‌start is called from almost every function, including the main function. The calling function always pushes a virtual instruction identifier and then it jumps to vm_‌start . Every virtual instruction has its own virtual identifier. In this example, the identifier of the virtual entry point, where the execution from the main function starts, is 0x21CD0554. (Figure 5) In this part, there is a lot of code for preparing the vm_‌dispatcher – mainly for preparing the bytecode and allocating memory for the ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher9 whole interpreter. The most important parts of the code do the following: 1. Allocate 1MB with RWX permission for bytecode and a few more variables. 2. Allocate 0x10000 bytes RWX for local variables in the virtual machine for the current thread – the vm_‌stack . 3. Decrypt a piece of code using an XOR decryption routine. The decrypted code is an aPLib unpacking routine. The XOR decryption routine used in the sample is a slightly modified version of XOR dword, key routine. Actually, it skips the first of the six dwords and then XORs only the remaining 5 dwords with the key. Following is the algorithm for the routine (further referred to as XOR decryption_‌code): 4. Call aPLib unpacking routine to unpack bytecode. After unpacking, virtual opcodes are still encrypted. (Figure 6) Preparing virtual opcodes (step 1, 3 and 4) is done only once – at the beginning – and is skipped in subsequent executions of vm_‌start , when only instructions for proper handling of flags and registers are executed. Fi gu re 4 // G ra ph o f t he v m _s ta rt a nd v m _d is pa tc he r int array[6]; int key; for (i = 1; i < 6; i++) { array[i] ^= key; } Figure 5 //� vm_start is called from each of the 119 virtualized functions. The ID of the first virtual instruction of the respective function is given as an argument. ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher10 Figure 6 // �All the code from the vm_start to the vm_dispatcher in grouped nodes named based on their purpose. FINFISHER’S INTERPRETER This part includes the vm_‌dispatcher with all the vm_‌handlers (34 in FinFisher samples) and is crucial for analyzing and/or devirtualizing the virtual machine. The interpreter executes the bytecode. The instruction jmp dword ptr [eax+ecx*4] jumps to one of the 34 vm_‌handlers . Each vm_‌handler implements one virtual machine instruction. In order to know what every vm_‌handler does, we first need to understand the vm_‌context and vm_‌dispatcher . 1 . Creating an IDA graph Before diving into it, creating a well-structured graph can really help understanding the interpreter. We recommend splitting the graph into two parts – the vm_‌start and the vm_‌dispatcher , i.e. to define a beginning of a function at the vm_‌dispatcher’s first instruction. What is still missing is the actual vm_‌handlers referenced by the vm_‌dispatcher . In order to connect these handlers with the graph of the ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher11 vm_‌dispatcher , the following functions can be used: AddCodeXref(addr_‌of_‌jmp_‌instr, vm_‌handler, XREF_‌USER|fl_‌JN) adding references from the last vm_‌dispatcher instruction to the beginnings of the vm_‌handlers AppendFchunk appending tails again After appending every vm_‌handler to the dispatcher function, the resulting graph should look like (Figure 7) Figure 7 // Graph of the vm_dispatcher with all 34 vm_handlers . 2. Vm_‌dispatcher This part is responsible for fetching and decoding the bytecode. It performs the following steps: • Executes pusha and pusf instructions to prepare virtual registers and virtual flags for further execution of a virtual instruction. • Retrieves the base address of the image and address of vm_‌stack • Reads 24 bytes of bytecode specifying the next vm_‌instruction and its arguments ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher12 • Decrypts the bytecode with the previously described XOR decryption routine • Adds the image base to the bytecode argument in case the argument is a global variable • Retrieves the virtual opcode (number 0-33) from the decrypted bytecode • Jumps to the corresponding vm_‌handler which interprets the virtual opcode After the vm_‌handler for an instruction has executed, the same sequence of steps is repeated for the next one, starting from the vm_‌dispatcher’s first instruction. In the case of the vm_‌call handler, the control is passed to the vm_‌start part instead (except for instances when a non-virtualized function follows). 3. Vm_‌context In this part, we will describe the vm_‌context – a structure used by the virtual machine, containing all the information necessary for executing the vm_‌dispatcher and each vm_‌handler . When looking at the code of both the vm_‌dispatcher and the vm_‌handlers in greater detail, we can notice there are a lot of data operation instructions, referring to ebx+offset, where offset is a number from 0x00 to 0x50. In Figure 8, we can see what the main part of vm_‌handler 0x05 in one FinFisher sample looks like. (Figure 8) Figure 8 // Screenshot of one of the vm_handlers ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher13 The ebx register points to a structure we named vm_‌context . We must understand how this structure is used – what the members are, what they mean, and how they are used. When solving this puzzle for the first time, a bit of guessing is needed as to how the vm_‌context and its members are used. For example, let’s have a look at the sequence of instructions at the end of the vm_‌dispatcher: Since we know that the last instruction is a jump to a vm_‌handler , we can conclude that ecx contains a virtual opcode and thus the 0x3C member of a vm_‌struct refers to a virtual opcode number. Let’s make one more educated guess. At the end of almost every vm_‌handler, struct vm_context { DWORD vm_instruct_ptr; // instruction pointer to the bytecode DWORD vm_stack; // address of the vm_stack DWORD tmp_REG; // used as a “register” in the virtual machine DWORD vm_dispatcher_loop; // address of the vm_dispatcher DWORD cleanAndVMDispatchFn; // address of the function which pops values and jumps to the vm_dispatcher skipping the first few instructions from it DWORD cleanUpDynamicCodeFn; // address of the function which cleans vm_instr_ptr and calls cleanAndVMDispatchFn DWORD jmpLoc1; // address of jump location DWORD jmpLoc2; // address of next vm_opcode – just executing next vm_instruction DWORD Bytecode_start; // address of the start of the bytecode in data section DWORD DispatchEBP; DWORD ImageBase; // Image base address DWORD ESP0_flags; // top of the native stack (there are saved flags of the vm_code) DWORD ESP1_flags; // same as previous DWORD LoadVOpcodesSectionFn; vi_params bytecode; // everything necessary for executing vm_handler, see below DWORD limitForTopOfStack; // top limit for the stack }; movzx ecx, byte ptr [ebx+0x3C] // opcode for vm_handler jmp dword ptr [eax+ecx*4] // jumping to one of the 34 vm_ handlers there is the following instruction: add dword ptr [ebx], 0x18. This same member of the vm_‌context was also used earlier in the vm_‌dispatcher’s code – just before jumping to a vm_‌handler . The vm_‌dispatcher copies 24 bytes from the structure member to a different location ([ebx+38h]) and decrypts it with the XOR decryption routine to obtain a part of the actual bytecode. Hence, we can start thinking of the first member of the vm_‌context ([ebx+0h]) as a vm_‌instruction_‌pointer , and of the decrypted location (from [ebx+38h] to [ebx+50h]) as an ID of a virtual instruction, its virtual opcode and arguments. Together, we will call the structure vi_‌params . Following the steps described above, and using a debugger to see what values are stored in the respective structure members, we can figure out all the members of the vm_‌context . After the analysis, we can rebuild both FinFisher’s vm_‌context and vi_‌params structure: ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher14 struct vi_params { DWORD Virtual_instr_id; DWORD OpCode; // values 0 – 33 -> tells which handler to execute DWORD Arg0; // 4 dword arguments for vm_handler DWORD Arg4; // sometimes unused DWORD Arg8; // sometimes unused DWORD ArgC; // sometimes unused }; 4. �Virtual instruction implementations – vm_‌handlers Each vm_‌handler handles one virtual opcode – since we have 34 vm_‌handlers , there are at most 34 virtual opcodes. Executing one vm_‌handler means executing one vm_‌instruction , so in order to reveal what a vm_‌instruction does, we need to analyze the corresponding vm_‌handler. After reconstructing the vm_‌context and naming all the offsets from ebx, the previously shown vm_‌handler changes to a much more readable form, as seen in Figure 9. At the end of this function, we notice a sequence of instructions, starting with the vm_‌instruction_‌pointer, being incremented by 24 – the size of each vm_‌instruction’s vi_‌params structure. Since this sequence is repeated at the end of almost every vm_‌handler, we conclude it is a standard function epilogue and the actual body of the vm_‌handler can be written as simply as: mov [tmp_‌REG], Arg0 So, there we go – we have just analyzed the first instruction of the virtual machine. :-) Figure 9 // The previous vm_handler after inserting the vm_context structure ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher15 To illustrate how the analyzed instruction works when executed, let’s consider the vi_‌params structure filled as follows: From what was stated above, we can see that the following instruction will be executed: mov [tmp_‌REG], 0x42 Figure 10 // Screenshot of a JNP_handler struct vi_params { DWORD ID_of_virt_instr = doesn’t matter; DWORD OpCode = 0x0C; DWORD Arg0 = 0x42; DWORD Arg4 = 0; DWORD Arg8 = 0; DWORD ArgC = 0; }; At this point, we should understand what one of the vm_‌instructions does. The steps we followed should serve as a decent demonstration of how the entire interpreter works. However, there are some vm_‌handlers that are harder to analyze. This vm’s conditional jumps are tricky to understand because of the way they translate flags. As mentioned before, the vm_‌dispatcher starts with pushing native EFLAGS (of vm_‌code) to the top of the native stack. Therefore, when the handler for a respective jump is deciding whether to jump or not, it looks at EFLAGS at the native stack and implements its own jump method. Figure 10 illustrates how the virtual JNP handler is implemented by checking the parity flag. (Figure 10) ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher16 For other virtual conditional jumps, it may be necessary to check several flags – for example, the jump result of the virtualized JBE depends on the values of both CF and ZF – but the principle stays the same. After analyzing all 34 vm_‌handlers in FinFisher’s virtual machine, we can describe its virtual instructions as follows: Figure 11 // vm_table with all 34 vm_handlers accessed Please note that the keyword “tmp_‌REG” refers to a virtual register used by the virtual machine –temporary register in the vm_‌context structure, while “reg” refers to a native register, e.g. eax. Let’s have a look at the analyzed instructions of the virtual machine. For example, case_‌3_‌vm_ ‌jcc is a general jump handler that can execute any native jump, either conditional or unconditional. Apparently, this virtual machine does not virtualize every native instruction – that’s where instructions in cases 4 and 6 come in handy. These two vm_‌handlers are implemented to execute native code directly – all they do is to read the opcode of a native instruction given as an argument and execute the instruction. One more thing to note is that the vm_‌registers are always at the top of the native stack, while the identifier of the register to be used is stored in the last byte of arg0 of the virtual instruction. The following code can be used to access the respective virtual register: ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher17 jump. This “jump offset” is actually an offset in the bytecode. When parsing jumps, we need to put a marker to the location to which it jumps. For example, this code can be used: Finally, there is a vm_‌handler responsible for executing native instructions from arguments, which needs special treatment. For this, we have to use a disassembler for native x86 instructions – for example, the open source tool Distorm. The length of an instruction is stored in vm_‌context.vi_‌params.OpCode & 0x0000FF00. The opcode of the native instruction that will be executed is stored in the arguments. The following code can be used to parse the vm_‌handler that executes native code: 5. Writing your own disassembler After we have correctly analyzed all the vm_‌instructions , there is still one step to be done before we can start the analysis of the sample – we need to write our own disassembler for the bytecode (parsing it manually would be problematic due to its size). By putting in the effort and writing a more robust disassembler we can save ourselves some trouble when FinFisher’s virtual machine is changed and updated. Let’s start with the vm_‌handler 0x0C, which executes the following instruction: mov [tmp_‌REG], reg This instruction takes exactly one argument – the identifier of a native register to be used as reg. This identifier must be mapped into a native register name, for instance using a resolve_‌reg function as described above. The following code can be used to dissasemble this vm_‌handler: Again, vm_‌handlers for jumps are harder to understand. In case of jumps, members vm_‌context.vi_‌params.Arg0 and vm_‌context. vi_‌params.Arg1 store the offset by which to def vm_0C(state, vi_params): global instr reg_pos = 7 – (vi_arams[arg0] & 0x000000FF) tmpinstr = “mov [tmp_REG], %s” % resolve_reg(reg_pos) instr.append(tmpinstr) return def computeLoc1(pos, vi_params): global instr jmp_offset = (vi_params[arg0] & 0x00FFFFFF) + (vi_params[arg1] & 0xFF000000) if jmp_offset < 0x7FFFFFFF: jmp_offset /= 0x18 # their increment by 0x18 is my increment by 1 else: jmp_offset = int((- 0x100000000 + jmp_offset) / 0x18) return pos+jmp_offset def resolve_reg(reg_pos): stack_regs = [‘eax’, ‘ecx’, ‘edx’, ‘ebx’, ‘esp’, ‘ebp’, ‘esi’, ‘edi’] stack_regs.reverse() return stack_regs[reg_pos] reg_pos = 7 – (state[arg0] & 0x000000FF) reg = resolve_reg(reg_pos) ESET’s guide to deobfuscating and devirtualizing FinFisher18 For example, from the part of the bytecode shown in Figure 12, we may get the following output: mov tmp_REG, 0 add tmp_REG, EBP add tmp_REG, 0x10 mov tmp_REG, [tmp_REG] push tmp_REG mov tmp_REG, EAX push tmp_REG Figure 12 // Part of the unpacked and decrypted FinFisher bytecode Up to this point, we have created Python functions to disassemble each vm_‌handler. All of these, combined with the code responsible for marking jump locations, finding the ID of a virtual instruction after the call and a few others, are necessary for writing your own disassembler. Afterwards, we can run the finished disassembler on the bytecode. def vm_04(vi_params, pos): global instr nBytes = vi_params[opCode] & 0x0000FF00 dyn_instr = pack(“​ ​l​e​n​(​s​i​g​_​s​t​r​)​:​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​i​f​ ​k​e​y​.​f​i​n​d​(​s​i​g​_​s​t​r​)​ ​>​=​ ​0​:​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​m​a​k​e​S​i​g​N​a​m​e​(​v​a​l​u​e​,​ ​f​a​d​d​r​)​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​e​l​s​e​:​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​i​f​ ​s​i​g​_​s​t​r​.​f​i​n​d​(​k​e​y​)​ ​>​=​ ​0​:​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​m​a​k​e​S​i​g​N​a​m​e​(​v​a​l​u​e​,​ ​f​a​d​d​r​)​