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	"title": "Character encoding",
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	"plain_text": "Character encoding\r\nBy Contributors to Wikimedia projects\r\nPublished: 2001-09-20 · Archived: 2026-04-05 19:00:29 UTC\r\nPunched tape with the word \"Wikipedia\" encoded in ASCII. Presence and absence of a hole\r\nrepresents 1 and 0, respectively; for example, W is encoded as 1010111 .\r\nCharacter encoding is a convention of using a numeric value to represent each character of a writing script. Not\r\nonly can a character set include natural language symbols, but it can also include codes that have meanings or\r\nfunctions outside of language, such as control characters and whitespace. Character encodings have also been\r\ndefined for some constructed languages. When encoded, character data can be stored, transmitted, and\r\ntransformed by a computer.\r\n[1]\r\n The numerical values that make up a character encoding are known as code points\r\nand collectively comprise a code space or a code page.\r\nEarly character encodings that originated with optical or electrical telegraphy and in early computers could only\r\nrepresent a subset of the characters used in languages, sometimes restricted to upper case letters, numerals and\r\nlimited punctuation. Over time, encodings capable of representing more characters were created, such as ASCII,\r\nISO/IEC 8859, and Unicode encodings such as UTF-8 and UTF-16.\r\nThe most popular character encoding on the World Wide Web is UTF-8, which is used in 98.9% of surveyed web\r\nsites, as of January 2026.[2] In application programs and operating system tasks, both UTF-8 and UTF-16 are\r\npopular options.[3]\r\nThe history of character codes illustrates the evolving need for machine-mediated character-based symbolic\r\ninformation over a distance, using once-novel electrical means. The earliest codes were based upon manual and\r\nhand-written encoding and cyphering systems, such as Bacon's cipher, Braille, international maritime signal flags,\r\nand the 4-digit encoding of Chinese characters for a Chinese telegraph code (Hans Schjellerup, 1869). With the\r\nadoption of electrical and electro-mechanical techniques these earliest codes were adapted to the new capabilities\r\nand limitations of the early machines. The earliest well-known electrically transmitted character code, Morse\r\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding\r\nPage 1 of 11\n\ncode, introduced in the 1840s, used a system of four \"symbols\" (short signal, long signal, short space, long space)\r\nto generate codes of variable length. Though some commercial use of Morse code was via machinery, it was often\r\nused as a manual code, generated by hand on a telegraph key and decipherable by ear, and persists in amateur\r\nradio and aeronautical use. Most codes are of fixed per-character length or variable-length sequences of fixed-length codes (e.g. Unicode).[4]\r\nCommon examples of character encoding systems include Morse code, the Baudot code, the American Standard\r\nCode for Information Interchange (ASCII) and Unicode. Unicode, a well-defined and extensible encoding system,\r\nhas replaced most earlier character encodings, but the path of code development to the present is fairly well\r\nknown.\r\nThe Baudot code, a five-bit encoding, was created by Émile Baudot in 1870, patented in 1874, modified by\r\nDonald Murray in 1901, and standardized by CCITT as International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) in 1930.\r\nThe name baudot has been erroneously applied to ITA2 and its many variants. ITA2 suffered from many\r\nshortcomings and was often improved by many equipment manufacturers, sometimes creating compatibility\r\nissues.\r\nHollerith 80-column punch card with EBCDIC character set\r\nHerman Hollerith invented punch card data encoding in the late 19th century to analyze census data. Initially, each\r\nhole position represented a different data element, but later, numeric information was encoded by numbering the\r\nlower rows 0 to 9, with a punch in a column representing its row number. Later alphabetic data was encoded by\r\nallowing more than one punch per column. Electromechanical tabulating machines represented date internally by\r\nthe timing of pulses relative to the motion of the cards through the machine.\r\nWhen IBM went to electronic processing, starting with the IBM 603 Electronic Multiplier, it used a variety of\r\nbinary encoding schemes that were tied to the punch card code. IBM used several binary-coded decimal (BCD)\r\nsix-bit character encoding schemes, starting as early as 1953 in its 702[5] and 704 computers, and in its later 7000\r\nSeries and 1400 series, as well as in associated peripherals. Since the punched card code then in use was limited to\r\ndigits, upper-case English letters and a few special characters, six bits were sufficient. These BCD encodings\r\nextended existing simple four-bit numeric encoding to include alphabetic and special characters, mapping them\r\neasily to punch-card encoding which was already in widespread use. IBM's codes were used primarily with IBM\r\nequipment. Other computer vendors of the era had their own character codes, often six-bit, such as the encoding\r\nused by the UNIVAC I.\r\n[6]\r\n They usually had the ability to read tapes produced on IBM equipment. IBM's BCD\r\nencodings were the precursors of their Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (usually abbreviated as\r\nEBCDIC), an eight-bit encoding scheme developed in 1963 for the IBM System/360 that featured a larger\r\ncharacter set, including lower case letters.\r\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding\r\nPage 2 of 11\n\nIn 1959, the U.S. military defined its Fieldata code, a six-or seven-bit code, introduced by the U.S. Army Signal\r\nCorps. While Fieldata addressed many of the then-modern issues (e.g. letter and digit codes arranged for machine\r\ncollation), it fell short of its goals and was short-lived. In 1963 the first ASCII code was released (X3.4-1963) by\r\nthe ASCII committee (which contained at least one member of the Fieldata committee, W. F. Leubbert), which\r\naddressed most of the shortcomings of Fieldata, using a simpler seven-bit code. Many of the changes were subtle,\r\nsuch as collatable character sets within certain numeric ranges. ASCII63 was a success, widely adopted by\r\nindustry, and with the follow-up issue of the 1967 ASCII code (which added lower-case letters and fixed some\r\n\"control code\" issues) ASCII67 was adopted fairly widely. ASCII67's American-centric nature was somewhat\r\naddressed in the European ECMA-6 standard.[7] Eight-bit extended ASCII encodings, such as various vendor\r\nextensions and the ISO/IEC 8859 series, supported all ASCII characters as well as additional non-ASCII\r\ncharacters.\r\nWhile trying to develop universally interchangeable character encodings, researchers in the 1980s faced the\r\ndilemma that, on the one hand, it seemed necessary to add more bits to accommodate additional characters, but on\r\nthe other hand, for the users of the relatively small character set of the Latin alphabet (who still constituted the\r\nmajority of computer users), those additional bits were a colossal waste of then-scarce and expensive computing\r\nresources (as they would always be zeroed out for such users). In 1985, the average personal computer user's hard\r\ndisk drive could store only about 10 megabytes, and it cost approximately US$250 on the wholesale market (and\r\nmuch higher if purchased separately at retail),[8] so it was very important at the time to make every bit count.\r\nThe compromise solution that was eventually found and developed into Unicode[vague] was to break the\r\nassumption (dating back to telegraph codes) that each character should always directly correspond to a particular\r\nsequence of bits. Instead, characters would first be mapped to a universal intermediate representation in the form\r\nof abstract numbers called code points. Code points would then be represented in a variety of ways and with\r\nvarious default numbers of bits per character (code units) depending on context. To encode code points higher\r\nthan the length of the code unit, such as above 256 for eight-bit units, the solution was to implement variable-length encodings where an escape sequence would signal that subsequent bits should be parsed as a higher code\r\npoint.\r\nThe various terms related to character encoding are often used inconsistently or incorrectly.\r\n[9]\r\n Historically, the\r\nsame standard would specify a repertoire of characters and how they were to be encoded into a stream of code\r\nunits – usually with a single character per code unit. However, due to the emergence of more sophisticated\r\ncharacter encodings, the distinction between terms has become important.\r\nA character is the smallest unit of text that has semantic value.[9][10] In linguistics, this is called a grapheme and\r\neach of the various ways it may be written are called glyphs. (For example, the serif form g and the sans-serif\r\nform g are each a glyph of the grapheme ⟨g⟩, U+0067 g LATIN SMALL LETTER G.)\r\nWhat constitutes a character varies between character encodings. For example, for letters with diacritics, there are\r\ntwo distinct approaches that can be taken to encode them. They can be encoded either as a single unified character\r\n(known as a precomposed character), or as separate characters that combine into a single glyph. The former\r\nsimplifies the text handling system, but the latter allows any letter/diacritic combination to be used in text.\r\nLigatures pose similar problems. Some writing systems, such as Arabic and Hebrew, have graphemes whose shape\r\nand joining depend on context.\r\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding\r\nPage 3 of 11\n\nA character set is a collection of characters used to represent text.[9][10]\r\n For example, the Latin alphabet and Greek\r\nalphabet are character sets.\r\nCoded character set\r\n[edit]\r\nA coded character set is a character set with each item uniquely mapped to a numberic value.[10]\r\nThis is also known as a code page,\r\n[9]\r\n although that term is generally antiquated. Originally, code page referred to\r\na page number in an IBM manual that defined a particular character encoding.[11] Other vendors, including\r\nMicrosoft, SAP, and Oracle Corporation, also published their own code pages, including notable Windows code\r\npage and code page 437. Despite no longer referring to specific pages in a manual, many character encodings are\r\nstill identified to by the same number. Likewise, the term code page is still used to refer to character encoding.\r\nIn Unix and Unix-like systems, the term charmap is commonly used; usually in the larger context of locales.\r\nIBM's Character Data Representation Architecture (CDRA) designates each entity with a coded character set\r\nidentifier (CCSID), which is variously called a charset, character set, code page, or CHARMAP.\r\n[12]\r\nCharacter repertoire\r\n[edit]\r\nA character repertoire is a set of characters that can be represented by a particular coded character set.[10][13] The\r\nrepertoire may be closed, meaning that no additions are allowed without creating a new standard (as is the case\r\nwith ASCII and most of the ISO-8859 series); or it may be open, allowing additions (as is the case with Unicode\r\nand to a limited extent Windows code pages).[13]\r\nA code point is the value or position of a character in a coded character set.[10] A code point is represented by a\r\nsequence of code units. The mapping is defined by the encoding. Thus, the number of code units required to\r\nrepresent a code point depends on the encoding:\r\nUTF-8: code points map to a sequence of one, two, three or four code units.\r\nUTF-16: code units are twice as long as 8-bit code units. Therefore, any code point with a scalar value less\r\nthan U+10000 is encoded with a single code unit. Code points with a value U+10000 or higher require two\r\ncode units each. These pairs of code units have a unique term in UTF-16: \"Unicode surrogate pairs\".\r\nUTF-32: the 32-bit code unit is large enough that every code point is represented as a single code unit.\r\nGB 18030: multiple code units per code point are common, because of the small code units. Code points\r\nare mapped to one, two, or four code units.[14]\r\nCode space is the range of numerical values spanned by a coded character set.[10][12]\r\nA code unit is the minimum bit combination that can represent a character in a character encoding (in computer\r\nscience terms, it is the word size of the character encoding).[10][12] Common code units include 7-bit, 8-bit, 16-bit,\r\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding\r\nPage 4 of 11\n\nand 32-bit. In some encodings, some characters are encoded as multiple code units.\r\nFor example:\r\nASCII: 7 bits\r\nUTF-8, EBCDIC and GB 18030: 8 bits\r\nUTF-16: 16 bits\r\nUTF-32: 32 bits\r\nUnicode and its parallel standard, the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set, together constitute a unified\r\nstandard for character encoding. Rather than mapping characters directly to bytes, Unicode separately defines a\r\ncoded character set that maps characters to unique natural numbers (code points), how those code points are\r\nmapped to a series of fixed-size natural numbers (code units), and finally how those units are encoded as a stream\r\nof octets (bytes). The purpose of this decomposition is to establish a universal set of characters that can be\r\nencoded in a variety of ways. To describe the model precisely, Unicode uses existing terms and defines new terms.\r\n[12]\r\nAbstract character repertoire\r\n[edit]\r\nAn abstract character repertoire (ACR) is the full set of abstract characters that a system supports. Unicode has an\r\nopen repertoire, meaning that new characters will be added to the repertoire over time.\r\nCoded character set\r\n[edit]\r\nA coded character set (CCS) is a function that maps characters to code points (each code point represents one\r\ncharacter). For example, in a given repertoire, the capital letter \"A\" in the Latin alphabet might be represented by\r\nthe code point 65, the character \"B\" by 66, and so on. Multiple coded character sets may share the same character\r\nrepertoire; for example ISO/IEC 8859-1 and IBM code pages 037 and 500 all cover the same repertoire but map\r\nthem to different code points.\r\nCharacter encoding form\r\n[edit]\r\nA character encoding form (CEF) is the mapping of code points to code units to facilitate storage in a system that\r\nrepresents numbers as bit sequences of fixed length (i.e. practically any computer system). For example, a system\r\nthat stores numeric information in 16-bit units can only directly represent code points 0 to 65,535 in each unit, but\r\nlarger code points (say, 65,536 to 1.4 million) could be represented by using multiple 16-bit units. This\r\ncorrespondence is defined by a CEF.\r\nCharacter encoding scheme\r\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding\r\nPage 5 of 11\n\n[edit]\r\nA character encoding scheme (CES) is the mapping of code units to a sequence of octets to facilitate storage on an\r\noctet-based file system or transmission over an octet-based network. Simple character encoding schemes include\r\nUTF-8, UTF-16BE, UTF-32BE, UTF-16LE, and UTF-32LE; compound character encoding schemes, such as\r\nUTF-16, UTF-32 and ISO/IEC 2022, switch between several simple schemes by using a byte order mark or\r\nescape sequences; compressing schemes try to minimize the number of bytes used per code unit (such as SCSU\r\nand BOCU).\r\nAlthough UTF-32BE and UTF-32LE are simpler CESes, most systems working with Unicode use either UTF-8,\r\nwhich is backward compatible with fixed-length ASCII and maps Unicode code points to variable-length\r\nsequences of octets, or UTF-16BE,\r\n[citation needed]\r\n which is backward compatible with fixed-length UCS-2BE and\r\nmaps Unicode code points to variable-length sequences of 16-bit words. See comparison of Unicode encodings\r\nfor a detailed discussion.\r\nHigher-level protocol\r\n[edit]\r\nThere may be a higher-level protocol which supplies additional information to select the particular variant of a\r\nUnicode character, particularly where there are regional variants that have been 'unified' in Unicode as the same\r\ncharacter. An example is the XML attribute xml:lang.\r\nThe Unicode model uses the term \"character map\" for other systems which directly assign a sequence of\r\ncharacters to a sequence of bytes, covering all of the CCS, CEF and CES layers.[12]\r\nCode point documentation\r\n[edit]\r\nA character is commonly documented as 'U+' followed by its code point value in hexadecimal. The range of valid\r\ncode points (the code space) for the Unicode standard is U+0000 to U+10FFFF, inclusive, divided in 17 planes,\r\nidentified by the numbers 0 to 16. Characters in the range U+0000 to U+FFFF are in plane 0, called the Basic\r\nMultilingual Plane (BMP). This plane contains the most commonly used characters. Characters in the range\r\nU+10000 to U+10FFFF in the other planes are called supplementary characters.\r\nThe following table includes examples of code points:\r\nCharacter Code point Grapheme\r\nLatin A U+0041 Α\r\nLatin sharp S U+00DF ß\r\nHan for East U+6771 東\r\nAmpersand U+0026 \u0026\r\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding\r\nPage 6 of 11\n\nInverted exclamation mark U+00A1 ¡\r\nSection sign U+00A7 §\r\nConsider, \"ab̲c𐐀\" – a string containing a Unicode combining character (U+0332 ◌̲ COMBINING LOW LINE to\r\nunderline the ⟨b⟩) as well as a supplementary character (U+10400 𐐀 DESERET CAPITAL LETTER LONG I).\r\nThis string has several Unicode representations which are logically equivalent, yet while each is suited to a\r\ndiverse set of circumstances or range of requirements:\r\nFour composed characters:\r\na , b̲ , c , 𐐀\r\nFive graphemes:\r\na , b , _ , c , 𐐀\r\nFive Unicode code points:\r\nU+0061 , U+0062 , U+0332 , U+0063 , U+10400\r\nFive UTF-32 code units (32-bit integer values):\r\n0x00000061 , 0x00000062 , 0x00000332 , 0x00000063 , 0x00010400\r\nSix UTF-16 code units (16-bit integers)\r\n0x0061 , 0x0062 , 0x0332 , 0x0063 , 0xD801 , 0xDC00\r\nNine UTF-8 code units (8-bit values, or bytes)\r\n0x61 , 0x62 , 0xCC , 0xB2 , 0x63 , 0xF0 , 0x90 , 0x90 , 0x80\r\nNote in particular that 𐐀 is represented with either one 32-bit value (UTF-32), two 16-bit values (UTF-16), or four\r\n8-bit values (UTF-8). Although each of those forms uses the same total number of bits (32) to represent the\r\ngrapheme, it is not obvious how the actual numeric byte values are related.\r\nTo support environments using multiple character encodings, software has been developed to translate text\r\nbetween character encoding schemes, a process known as transcoding. Notable software includes:\r\nWeb browser – Modern browsers feature automatic character encoding detection\r\niconv – Program and standardized API to convert encodings\r\nluit – Program that converts encoding of input and output to programs running interactively\r\nInternational Components for Unicode – A set of C and Java libraries for charset conversion\r\nEncoding.Convert – .NET API[15]\r\nMultiByteToWideChar/WideCharToMultiByte – Windows API functions for converting between ANSI and\r\nUnicode[16][17]\r\nCommon character encodings\r\n[edit]\r\nThis section needs expansion with: Popularity and comparison:\r\nStatistics on popularity\r\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding\r\nPage 7 of 11\n\nEspecially, a comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of the few 3–5 most common\r\ncharacter encodings (e.g. UTF-8, UTF-16 and UTF-32). You can help by adding missing\r\ninformation. (June 2024)\r\nThe most used character encoding on the web is UTF-8, used in 98.9% of surveyed web sites, as of January 2026.\r\n[2]\r\n In application programs and operating system tasks, both UTF-8 and UTF-16 are popular options.[3][18]\r\nISO 646\r\nASCII\r\nEBCDIC\r\nISO 8859:\r\nISO 8859-1 Western Europe\r\nISO 8859-2 Western and Central Europe\r\nISO 8859-3 Western Europe and South European (Turkish, Maltese plus Esperanto)\r\nISO 8859-4 Western Europe and Baltic countries (Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia and Lapp)\r\nISO 8859-5 Cyrillic alphabet\r\nISO 8859-6 Arabic\r\nISO 8859-7 Greek\r\nISO 8859-8 Hebrew\r\nISO 8859-9 Western Europe with amended Turkish character set\r\nISO 8859-10 Western Europe with rationalised character set for Nordic languages, including\r\ncomplete Icelandic set\r\nISO 8859-11 Thai\r\nISO 8859-13 Baltic languages plus Polish\r\nISO 8859-14 Celtic languages (Irish Gaelic, Scottish, Welsh)\r\nISO 8859-15 Added the Euro sign and other rationalisations to ISO 8859-1\r\nISO 8859-16 Central, Eastern and Southern European languages (Albanian, Bosnian, Croatian,\r\nHungarian, Polish, Romanian, Serbian and Slovenian, but also French, German, Italian and Irish\r\nGaelic)\r\nCP437, CP720, CP737, CP850, CP852, CP855, CP857, CP858, CP860, CP861, CP862, CP863, CP865,\r\nCP866, CP869, CP872\r\nMS-Windows character sets:\r\nWindows-1250 for Central European languages that use Latin script, (Polish, Czech, Slovak,\r\nHungarian, Slovene, Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Romanian and Albanian)\r\nWindows-1251 for Cyrillic alphabets\r\nWindows-1252 for Western languages\r\nWindows-1253 for Greek\r\nWindows-1254 for Turkish\r\nWindows-1255 for Hebrew\r\nWindows-1256 for Arabic\r\nWindows-1257 for Baltic languages\r\nWindows-1258 for Vietnamese\r\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding\r\nPage 8 of 11\n\nMac OS Roman\r\nKOI8-R, KOI8-U, KOI-7\r\nMIK\r\nISCII\r\nTSCII\r\nVISCII\r\nJIS X 0208 is a widely deployed standard for Japanese character encoding that has several encoding forms.\r\nShift JIS (Microsoft Code page 932 is a dialect of Shift_JIS)\r\nEUC-JP\r\nISO-2022-JP\r\nJIS X 0213 is an extended version of JIS X 0208.\r\nShift_JIS-2004\r\nEUC-JIS-2004\r\nISO-2022-JP-2004\r\nChinese Guobiao\r\nGB 2312\r\nGBK (Microsoft Code page 936)\r\nGB 18030\r\nTaiwan Big5 (a more famous variant is Microsoft Code page 950)\r\nHong Kong HKSCS\r\nKorean\r\nKS X 1001 is a Korean double-byte character encoding standard\r\nEUC-KR\r\nISO-2022-KR\r\nUnicode (and subsets thereof, such as the 16-bit 'Basic Multilingual Plane')\r\nUTF-8\r\nUTF-16\r\nUTF-32\r\nANSEL or ISO/IEC 6937\r\nPercent-encoding – Method of encoding characters in a URI\r\nAlt code – Input method\r\nCharacter encodings in HTML – Use of encoding systems for international characters in HTML\r\nCharset sniffing – Practice of deducing the file type of a bitstream\r\nCategory:Character encoding – articles related to character encoding in general\r\nCategory:Character sets – articles detailing specific character encodings\r\nHexadecimal – Base-16 numeric representation\r\nMojibake – Garbled text as a result of incorrect character encodings\r\nMojikyō – Character encoding scheme\r\nPresentation layer – Sixth layer of the OSI model of telecommunications\r\nTofu (symbol) – Mark shown when a codepoint cannot be resolved\r\n.notdef, a character within a font to be used for this purpose\r\nTRON (encoding) – Multi-byte character encoding\r\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding\r\nPage 9 of 11\n\nUniversal Character Set characters – Complete list of the characters available on most computers\r\n1. ^ \"Character Encoding Definition\". The Tech Terms Dictionary. 24 September 2010.\r\n2. ^ Jump up to: a\r\n \r\nb\r\n \"Usage Survey of Character Encodings broken down by Ranking\". W3Techs. Retrieved 1\r\nJanuary 2026.\r\n3. ^ Jump up to: a\r\n \r\nb\r\n \"Charset\". Android Developers. Retrieved 2 January 2021. “Android note: The Android\r\nplatform default is always UTF-8.”\r\n4. ^ Tom Henderson (17 April 2014). \"Ancient Computer Character Code Tables – and Why They're Still\r\nRelevant\". Smartbear. Archived from the original on 30 April 2014. Retrieved 29 April 2014.\r\n5. ^ \"IBM Electronic Data-Processing Machines Type 702 Preliminary Manual of Information\" (PDF). 1954.\r\np. 80. 22-6173-1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022 – via bitsavers.org.\r\n6. ^ \"UNIVAC System\" (PDF) (reference card).\r\n7. ^ Tom Jennings (20 April 2016). \"An annotated history of some character codes\". Sensitive Research.\r\nRetrieved 1 November 2018.\r\n8. ^ Strelho, Kevin (15 April 1985). \"IBM Drives Hard Disks to New Standards\". InfoWorld. Popular\r\nComputing Inc. pp. 29–33. Retrieved 10 November 2020.\r\n9. ^ Jump up to: a\r\n \r\nb\r\n \r\nc\r\n \r\nd\r\n Shawn Steele (15 March 2005). \"What's the difference between an Encoding, Code\r\nPage, Character Set and Unicode?\". Microsoft Docs.\r\n10. ^ Jump up to: a\r\n \r\nb\r\n \r\nc\r\n \r\nd\r\n \r\ne\r\n \r\nf\r\n \r\ng\r\n \"Glossary of Unicode Terms\". Unicode Consortium.\r\n11. ^ \"VT510 Video Terminal Programmer Information\". Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). 7.1.\r\nCharacter Sets - Overview. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2017.\r\n“In addition to traditional DEC and ISO character sets, which conform to the structure and rules of ISO\r\n2022, the VT510 supports a number of IBM PC code pages (page numbers in IBM's standard character set\r\nmanual) in PCTerm mode to emulate the console terminal of industry-standard PCs.”\r\n12. ^ Jump up to: a\r\n \r\nb\r\n \r\nc\r\n \r\nd\r\n \r\ne\r\n Whistler, Ken; Freytag, Asmus (11 November 2022). \"UTR#17: Unicode Character\r\nEncoding Model\". Unicode Consortium. Retrieved 12 August 2023.\r\n13. ^ Jump up to: a\r\n \r\nb\r\n \"Chapter 3: Conformance\". The Unicode Standard Version 15.0 – Core Specification\r\n(PDF). Unicode Consortium. September 2022. ISBN 978-1-936213-32-0.\r\n14. ^ \"Terminology (The Java Tutorials)\". Oracle. Retrieved 25 March 2018.\r\n15. ^ \"Encoding.Convert Method\". Microsoft .NET Framework Class Library.\r\n16. ^ \"MultiByteToWideChar function (stringapiset.h)\". Microsoft Docs. 13 October 2021.\r\n17. ^ \"WideCharToMultiByte function (stringapiset.h)\". Microsoft Docs. 9 August 2022.\r\n18. ^ Galloway, Matt (9 October 2012). \"Character encoding for iOS developers. Or UTF-8 what now?\". Matt\r\nGalloway. Retrieved 2 January 2021. “in reality, you usually just assume UTF-8 since that is by far the\r\nmost common encoding.”\r\nMackenzie, Charles E. (1980). Coded Character Sets, History and Development (PDF). The Systems\r\nProgramming Series (1 ed.). Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-201-14460-4.\r\nLCCN 77-90165. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 26, 2016. Retrieved August 25, 2019.\r\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding\r\nPage 10 of 11\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Encodings.\r\nCharacter sets registered by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)\r\nCharacters and encodings, by Jukka Korpela\r\nUnicode Technical Report #17: Character Encoding Model\r\nDecimal, Hexadecimal Character Codes in HTML Unicode – Encoding converter\r\nThe Absolute Minimum Every Software Developer Absolutely, Positively Must Know About Unicode and\r\nCharacter Sets (No Excuses!) by Joel Spolsky (Oct 10, 2003)\r\nSource: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding\r\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding\r\nPage 11 of 11",
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